Medical doctor Linné - Double Key of Medicine
by Nils-Erik Landell

Internationally the first book written on Linné as a medical doctor! Few are aware that Carl Linnæus was a professor in medicine and together with Rosén designed the education in Sweden for medical doctors. Linnæus had many patients, described new diseases and educated generations of medical students. Nils-Erik Landell has written a book where Linnæus himself in every chapter is explaining his way through life as a medical doctor. The book "Medical doctor Linné - Double Key of Medicine" is actually a biography on Carl Linnæus presenting many new linnean facts and places.

Some pages in translation (promoted by Swedish Pharmaceutical Society):

DOCTOR LINNAEUS

- THE DOUBLE KEY TO MEDICINE

Carl Linnaeus (knighted von Linné in 1757) lived between 1707-1778. He is counted amount the world’s best known figures in recorded history. He is more famous than The Holy Birgitta (Saint Bridget) and that spinner of children’s stories Astrid Lindgren. He studies for the medical profession and devotes a large part of his working life to medicine becoming professor.

Carl Linnaeus is world famous thanks to his sexual system for the classification of flowers. The names he gives to plants are short and practical. They refer to the sexuality. Stamens and pistils are compared with men and women. He teaches the classification of flowers to generations of medical students since most medicines come from the world of plants. Classification leads to knowledge of plants’ medicinal properties. Botany is therefore important for the study of medicine. He teaches prophylactic health care, covering everything from the tastiest apples to the height of the work bench. These days many of his rules for healthy living are more relevant than ever. He lectures on Historia morborum, the science of disease. If there are no symptoms there are no patients either. His teaching is therefore centered round symptoms.

He is a world leader in his description of taste and smell.

He cures all illnesses with natural medicines. All his medicines originate from the plant, animal and mineral kingdoms. Diseases of the brain are cured with scents and those of the body with tastes. Carl Linnaeus considers that Clavis medicinae duplex, the double key to medicine, is his most important book. The smaller key opens the door to the cure for brain disease. Ten paired scents bestow harmony on the nervous system. The larger key opens the door to the understanding of other diseases which arecured with ten paired tastes.

Linnaeus’ examination of flower genitalia is simple in comparisonwith his detailed entries on sexual dissection of the female body. He journeys into the human body. Professor of Medicine Carl Linnaeus is mysterious and fires the imagination, for the medicinal world of the eighteenth century is magical. His descriptions of scents and tastes are seductive. His descriptions of medicines and diseases transport us on giddy historical journeys to fantastic worlds. It is not fantasy. It is more than fantasy. It reflects man’s conception of his body over the centuries. Carl Linnaeus’ descriptions of medicine and disease encompass humanity’s attempts to understand life and the human condition.

Carl Linnaeus is world famous because botanists and zoologists alike still apply his practical naming system. He is also famous for his vivid depictions of the Swedish landscape. His journeys into the innermost man are on the contrary unknown.

Linnaeus himself contends that his thoughts had evolved during his youth. Let yourself be captured by his imagination and verbal magic. He opens doors on the endless battle agaiinst sickness and death. Historic, exciting battles are described in the veriest detail. He follows humanity’s and the individual’s constant fight for health.

He lays clear the conditions for all that lives and our earthly journey.

Here you can meet Linnaeus in his own words. Follow him from year to year and see how he selects the road leading to doctor. You will meet a man far from the accepted view of a prince of peace wreathed in flowers. So far removed that the image is consistently put in quotes. Linnaeus never thought of most of this material appearing in print, but that is necessary in order to understand him both as doctor and human being.

Linnaeus decides to become a doctor

The peony gets its name from Paion, doctor to the gods, who discovers its medicinal power to alleviagte the falling sickness. It is found to be warming and drying for diseases of the head. It drives away nightmares and sicknesses of the womb. Linnaeus collects sayings, as if picking flowers. In old herbals he finds complicated quotations that meet his temperament. He choses to ignore Johannes Palmberg’s opinion that Butterburr Petasiites with its pestilence root can cure the pest and "severe Burning Sicknesses". Linnaeus contents himself with butterburr’s relationship to coltsfoot. Soon he comes to regard Palmberg’s book as a worthless guide and avoids references in which flowers cure the pest and camp fever. He is captivated by the sensuality of the herb garden. He writes that savory Satureja urges to the game of Veneris, love and procreation. In the summer of 1724 he puts the young Stina Trolle of Skatelöf to the test. She is enjoined to smell Farmer’s Tobacco Malva verticillata ’Crispa’ in the herb garden. If she is no longer a virgin she will faint. The experiment is carried out in the greatest secrecy. Name and place are written upsidedown in mirror writing. He says nothing of the outcome. Stina Trolle is presumably unaware of the eccentric youth’s intentions. Why should she faint at the scent of a flower? Presumably she does not faint. It is probable that Linnaeus is convinced of her virtue.

He lathers his face with "wolves’ milk" the sap from spurge Euphorbia. As maidens when they blush becomingly - he writes. He hastens to add that the burning, corrosive sap is a remedy for warts.

In Linnaeus’ herbal there is for the first time a glimpse of his interest in flower genitalia. In the "White Lilia Lilius alba" Linnaues spies "yellow shoots (testiculi)

which hang from their small spines and hooks (vasa spermatica)". He speaks of testicles and vas deferens (vasa spermatica) as if the stamen were a man. He showers the madonna lily Lilius candidum with quotations which extol its beauty. His own interest is entirely taken up with the lily’s large stamen.

By Växjö cathedral the senior school building still stands where in the spring term of 1726 Linnaeus’ father paid a visit to ascertain his son’s future prospects "since the Lecturers could no longer with good conscience advise the Father to keep the Son at his books, and unanimously encouraged the Father forthwith to place his Son with some craftsmen (Carpenter or Tailor) as they were convinced that he would get nowhere with books. This was a mightly blow for the Father who, with his slim resources, had for 12 years lavished on his beloved child all that he could afford, and while resolving on the craft for his child he turned also to the District Medical Officer Johan Rothman, Lecturer in Physics, to consult him about an ailment that had troubled him for some weeks. While he told the Doctor of his illness he also expressed the sorrow occasioned by his dearest child, on which he had lost ...." Linnaeus exaggerates. His latin teacher Nils Krok is later to pen an exuberant letter of recommendation for further studies. The teaching staff consider Carl Linnaeus to be a very talented and promising young man. Johan Rothman (1684-1763) is both teacher and sole district medical officer for the entire Kronoberg county.

At one blow he cures both the father’s bodily ills and the mental anguish caused by

the son. Rothman assures him that Carl is the most promising pupil in the school. In fact Linnaeus moves into Rothman’s home and is given private lessons in physiology. Carl Linnaeus is so quick to learn and so charming that Johan Rothman comes to regard him as hisown son and he assures the father that Carl will "become a renowned Doctor, who can in time support himself as well as any clergyman".

Naturally there is great parental pressure on Carl to take the cloth, which explains the irony evident in Linnaeus’ autobiography. He was not gifted enough for the priesthood and must therefore become a doctor! Now his "only care is for medicine, which I always hoped would be my means of support".

Linnaeus’ medicinal interest is reflected in his unnamed herbal. He regards "a fungus called Crepitis lupi" (the puffball mushroom Calvatia utriformis) as superior for staunching bleeding after blood-letting. Blood-letting of the sick is a common practice all over the countryside. Far into the 1900’s bleeding was applied for heart failure, when the heart can no longer pump the blood. In pastures everywhere grows the fungus whose brown spores Linnaeus recommends for blood staunching.

Linnaeus includes the prescription in his unnamed herbal. He buys Theoremata medica and Fundamenta medicinae from pastor Nils Osander at the turn of the month January-February 1727.

Linnaeus writes that the doctor should be well skilled in his profession, considerate, sober and humane. Much of what he writes in his youthful herbal is repeated in his many medical treatises. He who prescribes medicines with long formulas is sinning either through fraudulence or in ignorance. The finest medicines in the hand of an ignoramous are like a sword in the hand of a madman. The health of many has been irreparably damaged by too many medicines. These words of wisdom are frighteningly up-to-date!

Anatomy Theatre

In November 1728, by writing to the Government, the Collegium Medicum manages to postpone a woman’s death sentence until after Christmas Eve to make sure of the freshest possible corpse. Chief Superintendent Grafbom at the Royal Chancellery promises that later on and for reasonable remuneration to undertake transport of the body to the south district town hall.

After payhing a visit to the members of the Collegio Medico Linnaeus returns to Uppsala in the middle of January 1729. It is a fast journey by horse and sleigh. The eighty kilometers between Stockholm and Uppsala are covered in eight hours. The snowy road is staked out by spruce brushwood. It crosses frozen lakes and in gentle curves swings through sparse woodland and past ancient sentinel pines. Their knotty branches are weighed down by snow and their trunks are coated in scally bark. They journey by night as the days are short. The pure white snow reflects the light of the star-filled night sky. The travellers lie in comfort between soft warm furs. They are lulled to sleep by the hiss of the sleigh as it cuts through the snow.

At the end of January Linneaus returns to Stockholm. The winter is so cold that the wolves can broken through the high fence surrounding the royal hunting enclosure.

They maul the fallow deer. Soon the predators are tracked down and shot by gamekeepers and that keen huntsman KingFredrik I.

It is twilight. Linnaeus hastens across the dilapidated wooden bridge over Stockholm’s lock. Thirty wax candles and a pound of tallow candles have been purchased to illuminate the anatomy theatre. It is cold. Firewood has been fetched to warm up the auditorium.

For the first time a female corpse is dissected in Stockholm. There is much preparation. Posters are put up round about the town. "It is hereby notified that this coming January 31 in the anatomy theatre of the south district town hall public anatomy will be held on a deceased female body. Those pleased to attend are enjoined to be present at that establishment at 3 o’clock p.m. The entrance fee is set at 16 öre in silver coinage".

The anatomy theatre is on the top floor of the northern wing of the south district town hall. An amphitheatre furnished with rows of benches round the dissection table. Large windows give onto the street (Götgatan) and the square ((Södermalmstorg) while at the end of the room is a specimen room and mortuary, which is today the Tessin hall, a part of the Town Museum. The places of honour are adorned with red cloth. The Collegio Medico’s seal affords the eighteen master surgeons free seating. The doctors of medicine have complimentary tickets. Six napkins, sponges, tubs and a sheet have been purchased for the corpse.

The journey to the interior begins with a rapid cut from the corpse’s throat down to the public bone at the deft hands of associate professor Möller, followed by a transverse cut below the chest which Linnaeus writes in latin as "a jugulo ad pudem linea recta, et transvalem infra costas". The incision cuts through the skin and the upper fat layer. The muscles are freed and laid to the side. The next incision reaches the intestines and their blood supply so that the umbilical artery and veins are revealed. The tip of a small bellows is introduced into the short urinary duct so that the bladder can be inflated and demonstrated. The fingers of the right hand are slit open and nerves, tendons and muscles are displayed. The arm is cut open in the same manner. At this first dissection Magnus von Bromell is the pathologist. He is known to have an unusually large collection of anatomical instruments at his disposition.

Linnaeus writes that the Romans never left for war without having their future foretold in the entrails of animals. He considers further wordy motives for anatomy are unnecessary and adds, quoting: "this we know through two things, which are to know God and to know ourselves. Anatomy leads us to knowledge of our bodies, revealing us to ourselves as in a looking glass.... Who is he that once a year does not look to his property, how much more therefore should we tend to that wonderful possession, our body, ourselves?"

Carl Linnaeus’ writings are copious and difficult to read, now in latin now in Swedish, in convoluted sentences. His prolix lecture notes are illustrated with small drawings. One resembles a small pendulous belly and shows the two outermost slanting abdominal muscles which slope from the lower ribs down to the connective tissue sheath linea alba and there meet in the body’s median. They flex the trunk.

The other drawing depicts what is known as an invaginal rupture. An invagination, where intestines are inserted into each other. This is usually downwards in the direction of the intestinal motion, Linnaeus points out.

He distinguishes between the science of bones (osteology) and anatomy. They are sciences which should elucidate the function of the body so that doctors and surgeons know what they are doing.

He writes: "It is hard to know a sickness when one knows not the condition of its constituents, and also impossible to understand Medicine or Surgery without Anatomy and Osteology".

Carl Linnaeus notes that bones can grow together so that joints can stiffen to a single bone, quoting "which is called Anchylosis, and can never be prevented when one is ignorant of its structure. An early cure is difficult and a late one impossible".

In the sixteenth century ossification of joints (ankylosis) is common after tubercular arthritis and other all too common articular infections of the period. Magnus von Bromell illustrates the condition by demonstrating: "A leg bone with patella and a thigh bone so merged that the joint is barely visible. Similarly on an arm..... Exhibit of an Arm bone which through ignorance has healed so that both ends lie upon each other". In other words a broken upper arm bone where the bone fragments had been allowed to heal overlapping so that the arm had become bent and shortened. During a long pause in the dissection Magnus von Bromell exhibits one specimen after another from his large collection. These are studied and Linnaeus feverishly takes notes: "Cranium of a soldier, who received a blow when the Palace burnt down, so that it entered the skull on the left side of the sutura Lamboidea, followed by surgical trepanation of the right side, which trepanation hole can never heal as the cerebral membrane creeps out of the hole".

A cranium which gives a horrifying insight into the fury of the fire at the Palace Tre Kronor, when valuables are tossed out through the windows. An object of value is saved and a soldier dies! He is struck in the neck at the left side of the lambdoid suture. The suture (bone joint) resembles an inverted V and delimits the small occipital bone. The heavy object inflicts crushing damage followed by brain hemorrhage which increases pressure on the brain. To prevent the cerebellum and marrow from being drawn through the large hole in the skull and causing respiratory failure the surgeon decides on a trepanation on the right side of the skull. Fluid and blood flow out through the hole reducing pressure on the brain and "squeezing" is avoided.

The preserved skull is an historical document. The surgeon or trepanner bores with the same trepanation instrument as the father of medicine, the Greek Hippokrates (460-370 BC), used long before the dawn of our era. It is a triangular bore. Possibly the trepanner has not had time to observe that the membrane is being pressed out through the hole. Healing is impeded, the wound becomes infected and the soldier dies.

Magnus von Bromell continues to present new specimens which are even more exciting for the audience.

Carl Linnaeus annotates: "4. A sickness strange to those who do not understand anatomy was represented by a skeleton of a child that suffered from Hydrocephalum, whose head was enlarged since the ossa cranii had expanded. People maintain that these are bytingar because they do not understand Anatomy".

Children’s skulls are loosely connected to allow the brain to grow. In disorders of the cerebral fluid increased pressure from the fluid can lead to water on the brain (hydrocephalus). People generally believed that those with water on the brain were changelings - troll or fairy children exchanged for human children. People took good care of their ’changelings’ in the hope that the fairies would lavish the same care on the kidnapped children.

One can presume that a horrified gasp from the audience meets the fifth specimen. Linnaeus writes: "5. Display of Cranium hominis, a lue veneris interempti," a human skull consumed by syphilis. He goes on "of which Caries has gnawed away the nasal bone, and holes in the skull".

One horror follows another. The sixth specimen is the end of a dried, badly damaged penis (Glans Penis pyri magniitudini exsiccatus).

Carl Linnaeus describes the penis: "cut off from one who had suffered the French disease, the glans cankered and still alive".

What is it that is still alive? Not the man and not the penis. Does Linnaeus really mean that the cancerous growth on the cut-off, dried glans still lives?

The specimen is stone-dead but the horrible syphilitic tumour on the severed glans shakes up the onlookers. Most likely shudders run through the group. That specimen alone offers full value for the expensive entrance fee to the cabinet of horrors of human suffering.

Linnaeus continues untiringly: "7. Fistula maxillaris, sinus maxillaris is maxillae superioris cavitas... which is sometimes so large that 3 to 4 spoonfuls can pass through the same, which often break holes beside or in the nose, from which much matter flows out". What Linnaeus is saying is that both the sinuses of the upper jaw are large. They can contain many spoonfuls of purulent fluid which empties itself through fistular ducts formed in the nose.

Carl Linnaeus is interested in maxillary fistulas. He makes notes on an officer in Amsterdamwho is mad with pain. The officer goes tothe dentist who runs a sharp instrument right through the innermost tooth in the upper jaw and into the cavity of the jaw. Quantities of infectious pus flow out and the officer regains health immediately!

The moral underlying all Linnaeus’ notes on the first day of post-mortem would appear to be that a good doctor (medicus) should be conversant with the patient’s anatomy. Carl Linnaeus adds: "There is more to being Medicus than writing Prescriptions and seeking out patients. (?) A Smith, a Carpenter, etc. know their trade, how should we ply our trade without having learnt its nature? The Ancient Greeks called our body Microcosmos having found all they saw in macrocosmos".

In his obscure Swedish Linnaeus wishes to remind us of the ancient greeks who witness the macrocosmos of the universe with the same joy of discovery as when one peers deep into the microcosmos of the human body.

The candle flames flicker. The audience is tense. Magnus von Bromell then begins a long discourse on muscles. Linnaeus diligently takes notes: "Musculi. I shall give some examples of God’s miraclles in muscles".

The first example is a black and white woodpecker about which Linnaeus writes:

1. Displayed was a small Black somewhat speckled woodpecker with white feathers, of which the pair of musculos of the tongue went over the os occipitis over the whole head and in at the beak".

Magnus von Bromell starts by devoting a lecture on comparative anatomy to the woodpecker’s tongue muscles. He does this to demonstrate the ingenious construction of human beings, animals and nature.

The human eye and its muscles are demonstrated. Magnus von Bromell exemplifies the function of the eye for the cultured Stockholm audience. Carl Linnaeus describes in detail how musculus trochlearis runs as in a trundle, the function of which is to arch the eye. The muscle issues from the top inner side of the eye and extends forwards. The muscle then turns in the opposite direction through a cartilage loop on the inner edge of the socket, continues diagonally backwards and finally atttaches itself to the outside of the eye! The assembly marvels and Linnaeus the doctor takes notes.

This was a time when science was regarded as culture. The ingenious trochlear muscle is seen by the audience as one of many examples of the human body’s mechanical funcrtion. Carl Linnaeus regards the human body as a precision machine. In the beginning created by God. The outer and inner arm muscles are exhibited as "a masterpiece by God".

Spinal vertebrae are exhibited, from which spinal marrow (medulla spinalis) sends forth nerves to the entire body. Linnaeus writes that when the vertebrae are compressed paralysis results. Magnus von Bromell shows that a nodding skull moves towards the top vertebra (Atlas). A moment later the spellbound, breathlessly-listening gathering is shown the round vertebrae of a large, foreign snake.

Stockholm’s cultural elite appear to be insatiable. The human ossicle comes next.

Carl Linnaeus wonders why children cannot pay attention properly, although their ossicle is as well developed as any adullt’s. He does not reflect that children lack concentration. They hear what they want to. Magnus von Bromell displays ossicles glued to paper.

He points to the barely visible bones which are the prerequisite for human hearing. Three insignificant bones which transmit every sound.

Magnus von Bromell goes on to the skin. Linnaeus writes: "Epidermis covers Cutem, on living skin can be seen where one has burnt oneself, of vessicatoriis, etc, consisting of small scales of which Leuvenhoek has discovered that 200 scales take up no more space than a grain of sand, and that under each scale are 500 ductis excretorii. This epidermis prevents wear of the Papillulae nervae. This is the one that serpents divest themselves of annually. Indeed often patients too after sicknesses, as a farmer in Scania removed like a glove".

Themicroscope has been in use since the 17th century. The Dutch researcher Antoine van Leuvenhoek (1632-1723) constructed microscopes which could register enlargement of up to five hundred times!

What Linnaeus writes is that under the microscope burn blisters on the skin (epidermis resicatorii) are seen as small scales with underlying sweat pores (ductis excretorii). The epidermis protects the tactile corpuscles of the nerve endings

(Papillulae nervae) from damage. The human skin is like that of snakes, Linnae

points out. A farmer suffering a severe skin ailment was able to remove his skin like a glove.

The root of a hair is described with the help of a microscope: "....the hair follicle, consisting of two membranes, the outer tendinous the inner glanduleuse or glandular, which latter secretes a fluid that moistens the hair roots".

The microscope does not bring about such great discoveries as are expected. Men’s sperm cells are observed but one cannot understand the purpose of the small wormlike creatures. Physiology is undeveloped. Five hundred times enlargement is little help without the physiological equipment to test the function.

Interpretations of bodily function are all too easily simplified as when Carl Linnaeus writes that "lean people feel the cold more than fat people". He cannot know that fast metabolism can enable lean people to keep warm. He does not know that fat people feel cold when metabolism is low. He contents himself with saying how fat serves to fill all cavities and ward off the cold.

Typically for his time Carl Linnaeus believes that the physiological purpose of fat is: "to deaden the effect of sharp, salt and sour particles".

The twentytwo-year old Carl Linnaeus annotates and remembers. His passage on taste points the way to the science of taste he is to develop in his mature years.

Ailments that can be prevented and unwholesome growths that can easilyh be remedied are rewarding. Carl Linnaeus mentions one of each kind - an uneasy stomach or bloating (ephialtes) and umbilical hernia (exomphalus).

Carl Linnaeus refers at length to what Magnus von Bromell says about the two ailments:

"1. Ephialtes is a spasmus which occurs when we eat too much and lie on our backs giving rise to flatulence which stretches the stomach muscles so that they like the foot are numbed... It is generally called Maran.

2. Exomphalus, unbilical hernia... should someone suffer this Passion it must immediately be opened and the intestines pushed in and held in place with a lead bullet, or grangraena and mors will follow, as I have often observed".

Even today we are easily afflicted with a bloated stomach after over-indulgence at the table. Even today umbilical hernia can be pushed back in as prescribed by Linnaeus.

Carl Linnaeus’ intuitive and difficult, abbreviated prose is packed with latin expressions. Some are still in use in medicine today. Gangrene (grangraena) is death of tissue resulting from insufficient blood supply. Death is called Mors, the latin word for dead.

Diseases are referred to by Linnaeus as "passions". Emotions are highly engaged as patients are clearly aware of the uncertain outcome of treatment. Life-saving measures not needing an operation are most likely to succeed while operations run great risk of infection resulting in death.

Umbilical hernia is life-threatening without treatment. The intestines are forced out through the rupture and compressed so that the veins cannot supply blood. The intestine is then stricken with gangrene (putrefaction). Nowadays the rupture is

closed using modern sutures.

The next dissection at the beginning of February held on the same female cadaver is carried out by Dr. Nils Boy. The breastbone of the corpse is removed and Boy displays the larynx and vocal cords. Carl Linnaeus writes in wonderment: "Just think what a great instrument gives us speech, though no one wonders at it".

In his appraisal of past Stockholm doctors in 1758 Bergius names his colleague Nils Boy as very reliable and sympathetic. Bergius writes: "He thought that Third-day-ague could soon be overcome if, just as the paroxysm commenced, one leapt into a cold bath; and he dared to test it on himself, when shortly thereafter it happened that he suffered the same illness; but the attempt was a failure..." So Nils Boy dared to test the treatment he had prescribed for others on himself when he also was afflicted wih Third-day-ague, one of the malaria variants which were rife in the eighteenth century. He leaps into a cold bathtub when the paroxysms begin, and tragically dies from his own treatment.

Bergius makes mention of Boy as "reliable Medicus, and cared for his patients with incredible patience, rich and poor alike with equal solicitude".

All honour to the doctor who test his treatments on himself!

CAPTIONS TO ILLUSTRATIONS

Page 45

Katedral school in Växjö at which Linnaeus pursued his senior studies.

King Karl XII’s monogram above the entrance. The building dates from 1696-1715.

Page 67

Trunk muscles (from the curve of the lower ribs to the connective tissue sheath in the abdominal median). Sketch by Linnaeus.

Invagination. Sketch by Linnaeus.

Spinal cord in three versions. Illustration in Bernadi Siegfried Albini’s "Icones Ossium Foetus Humani" 1737. Bernhard Siegfried Albinus (1697-1770) is known for his beautifully illustrated books on anatomy.

Page 68

Carl Linnaeus’ own annotation in a couple of lines at the foot of the title page relates that at Amsterdam on 10th July 1737 he was presented with Albinus’ book on the anatomy of the foetus by the author himself.

Page 69

Linnaeus maintains that doctors must be conversant with human anatomy. The finest book on anatomy in the eighteenth century is Bernadi Siegfried Albini’s "Tabulae sceleti et Musculorum Corporis Humani" published in Leyden in 1747.

Skeletons and figures with muscles exposed are often depicted together with exotic animals such as this Javanese rhinoceros. Engraving by Jan Wandelaar.

Page 72

Skeleton placed in a classical landscape from Albinus’ large folio volume of 1747. Engraving by Jan Wandelaar (1690-1759), who also created the fly-leaf for Linnaeus magnificent "Hortus Cliffortianus".

A so-called muscle mannequin from Albinus’ "Tabulae sceleti et Musculorum Corporis Humanii" (Illustrations with human skeletons and muscles of the human body).

Page 77

Morbid surface growths were operated on in the eighteenth century. Here an operation on a breast boil. Illustration from Heister’s "Institutiones Chirurgicae" 1739.

Muscle mannequinin Albini’s "Tabulae sceleti et Musculorum Corporis Humani", Leyden 1747.